Draviidi keeled
keelkond Indias
Draviidi keeled on keelkond, millesse kuuluvaid keeli kõneldakse peamiselt Lõuna-Indias, vähem Ida- ja Kesk-Indias, samuti Sri Lankal ning vähesel määral Edela-Pakistanis, Lõuna-Afganistanis, Nepalis, Bangladeshis ja Bhutanis[1], Malaisias, Indoneesias ja Singapuris. Suurima kõnelejate arvuga draviidi keeled on telugu, tamili, kannada ja malajalami keel. Mõned väiksemad draviidi keeli kõnelevad rahvarühmad väljaspool draviidi keelte peamist levikuala kuuluvad India ametlikku hõimurahvaste loendisse, nagu näiteks Ida-India kuruhhid ja Kesk-India gondid.[2]
Ehkki mõned teadlased on väitnud, et draviidi keeled võisid jõuda Indiase rahvasterändega 4.-3. aastatuhandel eKr[3][4] või varemgi[5][6], ei ole neid kuigi kerge ühegi teise keelkonnaga seostada ning nad võivad igati olla Indias pärismaised.[7][8][9][10]
Epigraafilisi tõendeid draviidi keeltest leidub alates 2. sajandist eKr, nagu võib näha koopaseintelt leitud tamili-brahmi kirjadest Madurai ja Tirunelveli piirkondades Tamil Nadu osariigis.[11] Vaid kahe draviidi keele ala jääb täielikult väljapoole 1947. aasta järgseid India piire brahui keel Pakistanis ja vähemal määral Belutšistani piirkonnas Afganistanis ning kuruhhi keele dhangari murre Nepalis ja Bhutanis. Draviidi kohanimed Araabia mere rannikul ja draviidi grammatika mõju (näiteks klusiivsus) indoaaria keeltes nagu marathi, konkani, gudžarati, maarvari ja sindhi keel näitavad, et kunagi kõneldi draviidi keeli India subkontinendil märksa laiemalt.[12][13]
Viited muuda
- ↑ Phuntsho, Karma (23. aprill 2013). "The History of Bhutan". Random House India – cit. via Google Books.
- ↑ West, Barbara A. (1. jaanuar 2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. Lk 713. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.
- ↑ Tamil Literature Society (1963), Tamil Culture, kd 10, Academy of Tamil Culture, vaadatud 25. november 2008,
... together with the evidence of archaeology would seem to suggest that the original Dravidian-speakers entered India from Iran in the fourth millennium BC ...
- ↑ Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich (2003). A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04455-4. lk 299
- ↑ Namita Mukherjee; Almut Nebel; Ariella Oppenheim; Partha P. Majumder (detsember 2001), "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India" (PDF), Journal of Genetics, Springer India, 80 (3): 125–35, DOI:10.1007/BF02717908, PMID 11988631, vaadatud 25. november 2008,
... More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ...
[alaline kõdulink] - ↑ Dhavendra Kumar (2004), Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent, Springer, ISBN 1-4020-1215-2, vaadatud 25. novembril 2008,
... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...
- ↑ Avari, Burjor (2007), Ancient India: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200, Routledge, ISBN 9781134251629
- ↑ Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. Reaktion books.
It is generally accepted that Dravidian - with no identifiable cognates among the world's languages - was India's most widely distributed, indigenous language family when Indo-European speakers first intruded from the north-west 3,000 years ago
- ↑ Amaresh Datta. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti, Volume 2. Sahitya Akademi. Lk 1118.
- ↑ Heggarty, Paul; Renfrew, Collin (2014), "South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages", Renfrew, Colin; Bahn, Paul (toim-d), The Cambridge World Prehistory, Cambridge University Press,
Renfrew ja Bahn järeldavad, et andmetega sobib midu võimalikku stsenaariumit ning "lingvistikakohus ei ole otsust veel kaugeltki langetanud".
- ↑ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003), The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-77111-0, lk 22
- ↑ Erdosy, George, ed. (1995), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-014447-6, lk 271
- ↑ Edwin Bryant, Laurie L. Patton (2005), The Indo-Aryan controversy: evidence and inference in Indian history, lk 254
Kirjandus muuda
- Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich (2003). A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04455-4.
- Avari, Burjor (2007), Ancient India: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200, Routledge, ISBN 9781134251629
- Caldwell, Robert (1856), A comparative grammar of the Dravidian, or, South-Indian family of languages, London: Harrison; Reprinted London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co., ltd., 1913; rev. ed. by J.L. Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai, Madras, University of Madras, 1961, reprint Asian Educational Services, 1998. ISBN 81-206-0117-3
- Campbell, A.D. (1849), A grammar of the Teloogoo language, commonly termed the Gentoo, peculiar to the Hindoos inhabiting the northeastern provinces of the Indian peninsula (3d ed.), Madras: Hindu Press.
- Campbell, Lyle; Poser, William J. (2008), Language Classification: History and Method, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88005-3.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2000), Genes, Peoples, and Languages, North Point Press, ISBN 978-0-86547-529-8
- Elst, Koenraad (1999), Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate, New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, ISBN 81-86471-77-4.
- Erdosy, George, toim (1995), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
- Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003), The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-77111-0.
- Kuiper, F.B.J. (1991), Aryans in the Rig Veda, Rodopi, ISBN 90-5183-307-5.
- Mallory, J. P. (1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth, London: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 978-0-500-05052-1.
- Parpola, Asko (2010), A Dravidian solution to the Indus script problem (PDF), World Classical Tamil Conference
- Ruhlen, Merritt (1991), A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification, Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0-8047-1894-3.
- Shulman, David (2016). Tamil. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05992-4.
- Sreekumar, P. (2009), "Francis Whyte Ellis and the Beginning of Comparative Dravidian Linguistics", Historiographia Linguistica, 36: 75–95, DOI:10.1075/hl.36.1.04sre.
- Steever, Sanford B. (1998), "Introduction to the Dravidian Languages", Steever, Sanford B. (toim), The Dravidian Languages, Routledge, lk 1–39, ISBN 978-0-415-10023-6.
- Subrahmanyam, P.S. (1983), Dravidian Comparative Phonology, Annamalai University.
- Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufman, Terrence (1988), Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics, University of California Press (avaldatud 1991), ISBN 0-520-07893-4.
- Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000), The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics, Routledge, ISBN 1-57958-218-4.
- Witzel, Michael (1999), "Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages" (PDF), Mother Tongue (extra number): 1–76.
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1975), Tamil Literature, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-04190-7.
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1990), Dravidian Linguistics: An Introduction, Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture, ISBN 978-81-8545-201-2.
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Välislingid muuda
- Dravidian Etymological Dictionary
- Swadesh lists of Dravidian basic vocabulary words
- Vishnupriya Kolipakam et al. (2018), A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family, Royal Society OPen Science. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171504